Why Everybody Is Talking About Dissertation Abstracts...The Simple Truth Revealed

Why Everybody Is Talking About Dissertation Abstracts...The Simple Truth Revealed What to Expect From Dissertation Abstracts? You will shortly locate the official data about us. In addition, it covers a limited number of dissertations from the rest of the planet. Even then you're not able to discover the informative and accurate details. Make certain that you will get done with your research properly so you will be in a position to compose the content properly. You must not forget the simple fact that the very first thing your teacher is likely to read is the dissertation abstract and if your dissertation abstract isn't well written, your teacher is likely to deduct your marks for the entire dissertation. Lots of people struggle to compose a fantastic abstract since they understand that a poor abstract will ruin the entire dissertation. An abstract is a brief overview of a bigger work, like a dissertation or research paper. The committee members serve as mentors and guides throughout the dissertation procedure and always incorporate a scholar from away from the Heller community. By summarizing the outcome of the research, it allows other people to find a concept of what was accomplished without needing to read through the whole dissertation. If you wish to take the comprehensive details about this issue at that moment, you ought to go with the internet services with the expert writers and take writing projects based on the topic. Writing a dissertation paper is not a simple task because it requires preparation, research and hard work to compose a fantastic paper. Writing assignments can create a great deal of issues for the students because of their ignorance in writing. Writing dissertation abstracts are sometimes a true challenge for any student. So far as the students are involved, writing a research paper is among the toughest and frustrating job in their opinion. A dissertation abstract is a quick overview of the whole paper. The abstract has an objective of offering the readers with information in a condensed state, and the value of it can't be overstated, as it does not just stand for the preface, but in addition allows your teacher to appraise the preamble before reading the entire text. In relation to the structure, the abstract should stick to the structure of the principal dissertation, in the feeling that it should begin by discussing the introduction, literature review, methodology, results and conclusion. Additional a dissertation abstract, being a distinct section, should not depend on the entire dissertation. In reality, in the event the abstract can be limited to a single page it's even better. Sometimes students take assistance from such dissertation abstract writing companies who don't care for you and supply you with a dissertation abstract that's flawed. Dissertation Abstracts for Dummies The abstracts should have a particular dimensions and structure. If you would like your dissertation to be well-received, it is necessary to create a compelling abstract. Your dissertation should be unique and totally original. Dissertation abstract is written to reveal the elements of your findings. To learn how to compose a dissertation abstract effectively and easily, a dissertation template was created which highlights the principal elements you should have in your dissertation abstract. 3 Further details on the advantages of UMI publishing can be seen on their site. When you go to compose the content, then you should try to find a few tips. You might find it useful to have a look at a dissertation abstract template to have a better comprehension of its structure. Reread your abstract to make certain it offers a very clear overview of your general argument. In the latter scenario, you should set the concentrate on the issue and don't permit the word limitations to dictate the range of paragraphs in your work. The use of the abstract is to report the key aims and outcomes of your research, and it needs to be fully understandable on its own to somebody who hasn't read your total paper or associated sources. In it, the aim of the analysis and methodological choices are o utlined succinctly, letting the reader or researcher to rapidly scan and evaluate numerous studies to easily choose ones that fulfill their specific demands. During the very first section of the test, the aim is to measure attention during a boring endeavor. The actual men and women highly praise our essay help site. Its goal is to allow researchers to stay current with what other folks in their field are studying by providing short summaries of dissertations that were published. Otherwise, it defeats the objective of having an abstract in the very first location.

Shirley Jacksons The Lottery Essay - 947 Words

Shirley Jacksons The Lottery The setting in a story helps to form the story and it makes the characters become more interesting. There are three main types of setting. The first is nature and the outdoors, second is objects of human manufacture and construction and the third is cultural conditions and assumptions. These three things help the reader to understand the characters better in Shirley Jacksons The Lottery;. The Lottery; is started out by being described as The morning of June 27th was clear and sunny, with the fresh warmth of a full summer day.; The flowers are blooming and the children have just gotten out of school for the summer. To the everyday reader this story starts out as a pleasant one but†¦show more content†¦Another question that is answered is what time period this story is taking place. The men talked about tractors so this allows the reader to narrow the time period to 1935 and up. Tractors had not been invented before this time. Another mention of the time frame in this story is the clothes that the characters are wearing. The women wearing faded house dresses and sweaters, came shortly after their men folk;. This also shows the reader the time frame because it was not until after the 1930s that women started to wear housedresses and sweaters. It actually started to become popular in the forties and fifties to wear housedresses. This gives the reader an almost exact time period, which helps to add to the fear in the story that such a thing could happen 40 or 50 years ago. The second type of setting is the Human manufacture and Human Construction. The best example of this in the story is the lottery itself. The main basis of the lottery is to get rid of a member of the community. To do this a family is randomly chosen and from there a single-family member is chosen. It is all one big game of luck and chance to remove a member of the community. The lottery is starting to disappear in other towns but it still runs strong in this particular town. Jackson makes the entire setting spookier by not letting the reader find out the true meaning of the lottery until the very end of the story. ThisShow MoreRelatedShirley Jacksons The Lottery736 Words   |  3 Pagesjudge a book by its cover† could not be truer than with Shirley Jackson’s short story, â€Å"The Lottery†. Jackson’s title for the short story is in fact ironic leading the reading to assume the story to be cheerful and jolly, an assumption that could not be more wrong. â€Å"The Lottery† is about an annual lottery draw in a small town in New England. A tradition that has continued to be practiced for seventy years by the townspeople. This is not the lottery as we know it consisting of money, but the opportunityRead MoreShirley Jacksons The Lottery572 Words   |  3 PagesShirley Jacksons The Lottery   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shirley Jacksons The Lottery is an excellent example of an allegorical short story. In this story, the reader learns of a towns lottery that takes place once a year, every year. It has been a tradition in this small rural town for many years and the villagers never question these activities, they just blindly go along with it. But what the reader doesnt know is just what kind of prize the winner is going to obtain. Jacksons use of symbolism is shownRead More Shirley Jacksons The Lottery 946 Words   |  4 PagesShirley Jackson is said to be one of the most â€Å"brilliant and influential authors of the twentieth century.† â€Å"Her fiction writing is some of the most important to come out of the American literary canon.† (http://shirleyjackson.org/Reviews.html) Jackson wrote many short stories and even some books. They are more on the dark, witchlike side, however. Kelleher explains that Jackson stated in some interviews that she practiced magic. No one really knows if she was serious while practicing witchcraftRead MoreShirley Jacksons The Lottery888 Words   |  4 Pagesactually provides the foundation of a work, and this is the case in Shirley Jacksons â€Å"The Lottery.† In essence, Jackson has something disturbing to say about humanity and the force of tribal ritual. To that end, she creates a world that is itself wholly symbolic, even as there are smaller elements of symbolism within it. She also develops suspense based very much on the expansive symbolism of the environment. In â€Å"The Lottery,† Jackson gives evidence of how symbolism may be utilized to make aRead MoreIrony In Shirley Jacksons The Lottery863 Words   |  4 PagesCaleigh Bishop English 101 October 10, 2017 Formal Essay I The Many Instances of Irony in â€Å"The Lottery† In Shirley Jackson’s short story â€Å"The Lottery,† she uses many examples of irony. Irony is the use of words that are the opposite of their usual meaning or what is expected to happen. The use of irony plays an important role in delivering Jackson’s sarcasm. The author holds our attention all throughout the story and builds our suspense by using irony with the characters and events that take placeRead MoreAnalysis Of Shirley Jacksons The Lottery954 Words   |  4 Pagesthe authors message. Shirley Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery† displays a masterful usage of literary elements to better convey Jackson’s general purpose, such as through the deep symbolism and underlying theme; however, Jackson’s true provocation of emotion is accomplished through her quintessential use of point of view. The objective point of view is indispensable within â€Å"The Lottery† because of the creation of suspense, drama, and irony. To begin with, the first reason why Jackson’s objective point of viewRead MoreAnalysis of Shirley Jacksons The Lottery490 Words   |  2 Pages In Shirley Jackson’s â€Å"The Lottery,† the theme of the story is dramatically illustrated by Jackson’s unique tone. Once a year the villagers gather together in the central square for the lottery. The villagers await the arrival of Mr. Summers and the black box. Within the black box are folded slips of paper, one piece having a black dot on it. All the villagers then draw a piece of paper out of the box. Whoever gets the paper with the black dot wins. Tessie Hutchinson wins the lottery! Everyone thenRead MoreAnalysis Of Shirley Jacksons The Lottery1303 Words   |  6 Pagespowerful force (qtd. in AZQuotes). In Shirley Jacksons chilling story The Lottery, a town celebrates a special custom of stoning people to death every year. Jackson perfectly depicts a possible event that may occur from blindly following tra dition without evaluating the purpose or usefulness of it in the first place. Jackson’s use of plot, theme, and symbolism reveal the evil reality of blind faith, tradition, and their consequences. Initially, Jackson’s twisted plot reveals the infinite, viciousRead MoreResearch Paper on Shirley Jacksons â€Å"The Lottery†1141 Words   |  5 PagesShirley Jacksons â€Å"The Lottery† is a short story about the annual gathering of the villagers to conduct an ancient ritual. The ritual ends in the stoning of one of the residents of this small village. This murder functions under the guise of a sacrament that, at one time, served the purpose of ensuring a bountiful harvest. This original meaning, however, is lost over the years and generations of villagers. The loss of meaning has changed the nature and overall purpose of the lottery. This ritualRead MoreAnalysis of Shirley Jacksons The Lottery Essay776 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Lottery† is a short story by Shirley Jackson, first published on June 26, 1948. The story was initially met with negative critical reception due to its violent nature and portrayal of the potentially dangerous nature o f human society. It was even banned in some countries. However, â€Å"The Lottery† is now widely accepted as a classic American short story and is used in classrooms throughout the country. Jackson’s story takes a critical look at what can result when the customs and laws that govern

Implications of Gender Distinctions-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Asian societies, the processes of gender construction and the Implications of gender distinctions in a Cross-Cultural Context. Answer: Introduction Asia is the largest continent of the earth and shares important part of the history and culture of the human evolution. The aim of this essay is to analyze and describe the contradictory forces in constructing the modern images of women in relation to men in the Asian region and in what extent these images transform the traditional gender representation. Discussions Gender making Gender making or gender stereotyping has become one of the most important aspects of the present day scenario (Epstein and Arnold 2014). Since times in memoriam, there was discrimination between the men and women Men were usually given the maximum priority in the family and was considered as the head of the family whereas women were always considered as their subordinates. Even more surprising is the fact that the gender stereotyping that consider males to be superior to the females are often taught by teachers at school and also by the priests through the religious teachings. A good example can be a ban of the womens freedom to wear dresses as per their choice. However, it has been seen that over the years that several countries in the Asia have signed the petition for eliminating the ban on dresses. Though women are trying their level best to become self sufficient and applying for jobs but there is often the incidence of unequal pay followed between men and women. The gender attit ude towards women in Asia is largely patriarchal. Here in this region, the traditional societal hierarchy was maintained and women were considered as the lowest members of the gender structure (Nayak, Anoop and Kehily 2013). However, the archetypical role of the women is changing rapidly and more and more women in the Asiatic society have been contributing to the changing gender role in the society. Matrilineal It is a known fact that most of communities in Asia, particularly in South Asia are patriarchal in nature. However, there are certain communities that do follow the matrilineal structure as well. It is a kind of family structure where the women are given some independence. They are not forced to marry for financial purposes. They are no dependent on males for their economic independence. Many families also consist of only female members who also take up the responsibility of raising their children single handedly. However in many communities the freedom of women is restricted mainly in the context of choosing their life partners. However there is again another constraint. The women cannot select their life partners outside their own community, if they do so they will be banned from their community. However there is no restriction imposed on women to stay with her husbands family after marriage. She might also consider staying with her own family and take all the necessary family deci sions. However the women are not allowed to use any make up or dress as per their choice since it is restricted by the adult members of the society oppose it. They do not like the influence of the modern day society. Hence it is evident that women empowerment has not taken place in the right manner though women are given some rights and privileges but at the same time they are also denied many This system considers men and women have equal rights to power and they have equal access to the resources. However, in this system men and women are associated with equal sexual parallelism. Female is considered as the main descendant line in this family of the matrilineal society (Stark 2013). In this system, each member is identified with his or her mothers lineage and it is associated with the inheritance of the property. Minangkabau community of West Sumatra, Malaysia, Indonesia and Mosuo community of China in the Asian region belong to the matrilineal societal system. Patriarchal As the very name suggests, patriarchy is something that is related to the domination structure between men and women. One of the very common features that are seen within the context of patriarchy is the treatment of women as a property. Women are considered as objects that can be used by at any time. Women are always objectified, right from their birth till their marriage. In the Asian communities, particularly in the South East Asian most of the communities are patriarchal. Women are constantly suffering from identity crisis. They suffer from the lack of empowerment both in the emotional as well as the financial basis. They are always kept confined within the four walls of their domestic premises and are hardly allowed to go out and mix in the social mainstreams (Nayak, Anoop and Kehily 2013). There is a very poor belief among the entire south Asian people that girls are born to be fed throughout their lives and boys are there to earn and support the family. So, naturally the girls are always treated as a burden and are thought to be inferior to boys (Andersen et al. 2013). Patrilineal system consists of dominant power relationship between men and women. In this system, the men are in the dominant position and the inheritance of property, titles of a person and other rights in the family go from fathers bloodline. In this system, the male is in the dominant position and the other family members depend on the mens decision in the family (Maynes, Mary and Ann 2014). Marriage and divorce in the matrilineal society holds a different role than the other normal or patriarchal societal structure. Different matriarchal society has different marriage rules. For example, the Mosuo community in China, the female could handle all the responsibilities of the household and finance. A family is consisted with a woman and all the female members of her family. In the matrilineal structure, marriage is considered as less important as most of the time women are not seen as the property of the male family to continue the bloodlines (Epstein and Arnold 2014). Men and women could mix more freely than the patriarchal one and both could freely choose their lovers. In spite of being matrilineal system, the family of the Mosuo community is composed of matrilineal members, which includes mother, grandmother, maternal aunts and mothers brothers. The children remain in the mothers house and all the responsibilities of the children are taken care by the mothers family. Thu s, marriage is not a big deal in this system and it does not matter if marriage is occurred or not as long as men and women could mix freely and continue their love affairs. However, divorce is more frequent in the patriarchal structure and less common in the matrilineal society. As marriage is not forced on the women in the matrilineal structure, divorce is not seen as common rule in this societal structure. Women do not have to marry to the men for security or financial needs. There are some pressures against maintaining matrilineal system in Minangkabau and Mosuo societies. The pressure mainly comes from outside or external world. In the film, The Land Where Women Rule: Inside Chinas Last Matriarchy, these issues have been discussed in the context of the Mosuo community. The young members of the Mosuo community, they want to go out of the region and experience outside world. In this matriarchal system, the husband and wife could not live together in lifetime. However, some of the young members want to live together with their partners like members of Han community ("The Land Where Women Rule: Inside China's Last Matriarchy" 2017). However, this is the major resistance in maintaining the matriarchal structure in this community. The female members have to choose her partners within the community. However, if someone chooses her partner outside of the community, she has to leave the society. In this sense, the society is very conservative. The members are restricted to sing and dance Mousuo staffs and older members do not like make-ups. However, the outside world is exposed as the technology is advancing day by day. The community is affected by the external influences or rules and this is the major constraints to maintaining the matriarchal system in the Mousuo community. In the film, Muslim Women of Minang, it has been shown that the community is also matriarchal. However, there are resistances in maintaining the mothers lineage as outside world would see the Muslim women under the mens dominance. Thus, the men from the outside world apart from Minang see the women as the mens property ("Muslim Women Of Minang" 2017). The Minang Muslim women are compared with other Muslim women of Afghanistan, Taliban or Iran and they are very much different from the other Muslim women. The resistance mainly comes from outside Muslim community. Michelle Rosaldos distinction of private or public distinction of the division of labour does not fit in the Minangkabau or Mosuo society. The division of labour in relation to private and public proposed that men and women have different gender role in society (Connell 2014). Here the society means mainly the patriarchal society. In this gender role, the public sphere is for men and the private is for the women. In the Mosuo community, the typical gender role of the public and private are changed. In this community, the women manage the public world and take all the responsibilities including the family and outside world. However, men are for harder and heavier works only. Power pollution The power structure that mostly exists in the South Asian communities is harsh towards women as most of the communities there is male dominated. In other words the power in the domination is always exerted by men over the women. Women are always considered to be fragile. They are always treated as mens property; hence they can be treated in any way as per the will of the male members of their family. Women are always kept at the bottom of the power structure because it is taken for granted that they are the ones who will always surrender to men. It is often considered as a sign of masculinity to dominate and exploit the females (Stark 2013). Men and women are however considered to be equal in some societies like the Minangkabau society but there are some work that can only be performed by men particularly those that are heavier and need more physical strength. Men and women are considered complementary to each other. The society is purely matriarchal and matrilineal. In the time of t he marriages, the men are exchanged unlike general societal rule. However, the division of labour does not exist in this society. Men and women complement each other. Women and men enjoy almost equal rights in division of labour and so-called private and public world do not exist for women and men. Immediate return or delayed return economies This again is another problem in the current gender context. In order to initiate equality in society, most of the communities are trying to adopt the concept of the immediate return or the delayed return economies. It is a kind of community that tries to initiate equal rights and opportunities among individuals by incorporating the principle that no individual can dominate each other. As a result of which among every two persons, one of them always tries to become the dominant. This creates a problem as the entire society now exerts pressure on the would be dominator to bring the counterpart back in line (Maynes, Mary and Ann 2014). Often it is seen that in many communities, men start surrendering so that their women counterparts do not have to get dominated by them. In the act of doing this, women are often blamed by the society with then charge that they are bossing over men and exploiting them. This really becomes a major problem. Conclusion It can be concluded by saying that the archetypical construction of women and the patriarchal notion of the role of the women in the Asian region are in the contradictory forces as seen in the different ethnic groups of this region. The Minang and Mosuo are the matrilineal society and gender role of the women are different from that of men. References Andersen, Steffen, Seda Ertac, Uri Gneezy, John A. List, and Sandra Maximiano. "Gender, competitiveness, and socialization at a young age: Evidence from a matrilineal and a patriarchal society."Review of Economics and Statistics95, no. 4 (2013): 1438-1443. Connell, Raewyn. "Rethinking gender from the South."Feminist Studies40, no. 3 (2014): 518-539. Epstein, Arnold Leonard, ed.The craft of social anthropology. Elsevier, 2014. Maynes, Mary Jo, and Ann Waltner.Gender, Kinship and Power: A Comparative and Interdisciplinary History. Routledge, 2014. "Muslim Women Of Minang". 2017.Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CvNFvpCeCFY. Nayak, Anoop, and Mary Jane Kehily.Gender, youth and culture: Young masculinities and femininities. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Stark, Alexander. "The matrilineal system of the Minangkabau and its persistence throughout history: A structural perspective."Shoutheast Asia: A Multidisciplinary Journal13 (2013): 1-13. "The Land Where Women Rule: Inside China's Last Matriarchy". 2017.Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_l9D7tEixc.

Linguistics and Language free essay sample

In this essay, I will explain as well as compare two theories of first language acquisition, behaviorism and innatism. I will explore the differences between them in such categories as the role of the learner, the role of the environment and as well as their strengths and weaknesses. I will then state and explain which one I find more tenable with examples of relevant literature. Role of the Learner Behaviorism, credited to B. F. Skinner in the 1950s, states that the learner knows nothing to start with, he is an empty slate [o1] to be taught. The learner is passive and learns by positive-negative reinforcement, only repeating what he hears. Innatism, credited to Noam Chomsky in 1965, states that the learner is wired from birth for language. The learner is equipped with a LAD, a language acquisition device. This device allows the learner to discover the rules of his language, any language. We will write a custom essay sample on Linguistics and Language or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Role of the Environment Behaviorism states that the role of the environment is key and vital to the learning process. The environment is the active agent while the learner is the passive agent. The environment produces the necessary language input for the learner. It is up to the environment to give positive and negative reinforcement for the learner. Innatism states that the role of the environment is minimal because it only acts as the trigger for learning. It is also thought the environment is flawed and can’t be relied upon to always give perfect information. Therefore, it is up to the learner to find the rules of the language[o2] . Strengths There are a few strengths to support the behaviorism theory. It is easy to monitor the learners’ performance. This is how parents (as teachers) usually teach their children, through nurturing which puts emphasis on the role of the environment. This theory can also explain why learners have the ability to memorize. On the other hand, there are several strengths of the innatism theory. A learner cannot memorize all the possible different language and grammar combinations that he learns through the environment. The LAD helps the learner to generalize rules and make his own creative use of the language. A child will resist using an irregular form because of over-generalizing, and he will create his own form of a word according to the rules that he has internalized. And these rules don’t necessarily conform to adult grammar rules which include many exceptions. By applying these internalized and generalized rules, a child is able to acquire a language at a fast pace. [o3] Weaknesses The Behaviorism theory only accounts for the performance of the learner, and not on his competence. The learner is passive, so this theory does not focus on the learner’s mind and knowledge. It also does not explain why children acquire a language so quickly even if they are exposed to different environments. In addition, this theory also doesn’t offer an explanation of why children over-generalize rules such as the simple past tense of irregular verbs even though they hear irregular forms in the environment. There are also several weaknesses to the Innatism theory. One of the first weaknesses is that it demands the existence of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), its existence is difficult to prove and is immeasurable. This theory also doesn’t take into account different kinds of learners, just ideal learners with ideal grammar. The environment plays a minor role in this theory, so it doesn’t take into account the social aspect of the learner. My Opinion Looking at the two of these theories, I find the Innatism theory the most tenable. In my own experience with my children and students, the learners do not always model my behavior. This usually occurs with irregular patterns, particularly past tense verbs. This is similar to the â€Å"wug† test where a child will form a past tense of a verb that he has never heard before by applying the general grammar rules that he has learned. This behavior cannot be memorized and must be driven by an internal structure. Another reason to support this theory is that learners with impaired intelligence have been able to learn the structure of language. It has also been proven that American Sign Language which is taught to the deaf also has its own language structure. In addition, the creation of Creole languages supports the theory. As a Creole develops, grammar and structure are built in. The LAD would account for the formation of these languages as well as for creative uses of language by a learner. Conclusion In this essay I have explained two theories of language acquisition, behaviorism and innatism. In doing so, I have explained the different roles of the learner as well as the environment. I have also explored strengths and weaknesses of each theory and why I support the innatism theory over the behaviorism theory[o4] . [o1]Good one, I forgot this in my essay [o2]Do you think you should mention poverty of stimulus here? [o3]ording? Universal grammar is built off of two propositions, that all languages are governed by a set of universal principles, and that the mind is equipped with parameters which are set intuitively by the child according to the language input they receive. UG researchers have found a number of universal principles. One of the more prominent principles is structure dependency. Structure dependency states that all sentences regardless of the language are built off of propositions that carry both a noun and a verb phrase; in other words, every sentence in every language must have at least a subject and a verb (Chomsky, 1959). One parameter setting that is contained in the LAD is the head setting. Some languages such as English are head first, other languages such as Japanese are head last. Various arguments have been used to support the existence of universal grammar. Chomsky (1959) has proposed the poverty of the stimulus argument, positing that the input children receive cannot account for what they produce, and therefore, children must have an innate facility. He argues that the input is marred in two ways; first it contains a hodgepodge of performance slips, and secondly, it does not contain any negative evidence. How do children acquire language when they don’t know what they can’t say, or how do they learn to speak correctly when the input they here is at times in correct? They do so, according to Chomsky, through this innate capacity. Jackendoff (1994) offers another argument in support of universal grammar, the argument from expressive variety. Jackendoff argues that given that languages are recursive, there is simply no way of storing all of the possible sentences one can create in one’s mind. In other words, sentences don’t come from habits, but rather from creative expression. Universal grammar has had a lot of capital in language acquisition theory, although it has been critiqued on some fronts. Connectionists, particularly, N. Ellis (2006) has argued that language acquisition is not due to an innate faculty and the creative expression of humans, but equates it to a usage-based approach where children learning piecemeal frequently reoccurring chunks of language. Another argument against the innate language faculty is that UG researchers have claimed that only humans have access to syntax, yet this has been found not to be true. Certain animals, such as the humpback whale and songbirds have been found to possess a recursive syntax, suggesting that syntax and language may have evolved from lower order primates. Whereas universal grammar begins with language from the inside, Sociocultural theory, another prominent first language acquisition, posits language acquisition begins from the outside. Vygotsky, the founder of sociocultural theory, argues that language is a psychological tool, which children acquire and learn to manipulate as they interact with their environment and with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Children first learn language as they interact with their parents. Parents use caretaker speech, which makes it easier for the child to understand and grasp a hold on the concepts of the language. As the child begins to understand and produce simple utterances, they are able to use the language to mediate their psychological functioning (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky argues that children begin learning language by first learning single words, which are pure meaning. As they develop their language skills, and engage in social speech, single word sentences are augmented through incorporation of non-meaningful elements, such as function  words, and the child’s thoughts and words begin to develop more sense meanings. For instance, where the word ‘cat’ for the 1 or two year old child could have served as an exemplar for all cats, by the time the child is nine, and having undergone a variety of experiences related to cat, they have imbibed the word with their own unique s enses. Thus syntax and word senses expand, the more a child learns. Now, whereas social speech began from one and developed into many, inner speech, the speech that goes on inside of our heads becomes more and more truncated. Vygotsky argues, contrary to Piaget, that egocentric speech does not ‘disappear’ rather it becomes internalized as inner speech. And this inner speech is something that could not be understood by anybody but the person who is thinking it. Vygotsky suggests that just as people who have known each other for many years, and who have had a large amount of experiences together exhibit language tendencies of shortened syntax because of their historical shared experience, a person’s inner speech also exhibits this characteristic, but even more so; the stuff of thought is nothing but psychological predicates (Vygotsky, 1978). One of the primary ways humans learn anything, according to Vygotsky, is through the zone of proximal development. This concept explains that what a person can do today with assistance, they can do tomorrow by themselves (Vygotsky, 1978). Applied to first language acquisition, the child may receive help from an expert, such as their parents, who point at objects and say their name, for example, cat. After seeing this, the child may repeat ‘cat’ immediately after. The next day, as the child sees the cat, it says the word ‘cat’ without needing to be told by their parents. Chomsky maintains that languages consist of an infinite number of sentences and cannot be learned through habit formation. Language is too complex to be learned in such a short amount of time (Chomsky, 1959). He believes that every human is born with an innate language learning capacity, which is embedded in the language acquisition device (LAD). Chomsky believes that all language share grammatical structures. This is called universal grammar (UG). Proof of UG includes poverty of stimulus, which explains how children acquire the language despite their limited exposure and incorrect input they may receive. Another evidence for UG that languages are recursive, (Jackendoff, 1994). It is impossible to know all the possible combinations; however, they are learned by children. According to UG, there must be some sort of innate capacity that provides the additional information. The fact that children are resistant to correction once again proves that language is developed through an innate capacity. According to Chomsky (1959), all languages share principles, which are invariable across languages. For example, noun phrases and verb phrases. This is called structure dependency. All languages have verbs and nouns. What distinguishes languages from each other according to Chomsky, are parameters, which are language specific. For example, some languages are head first, and some are head last. In relation to UG, Eric Lenneberg (1967) introduced the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), which is a window of language learning opportunity before puberty. Proponents of CPH believe after this period, language learning becomes a much more difficult task and adults tend to rely on other mechanisms such as problem solving skills, reasoning, and deductive instruction to learn a language. Evidence of the CP is for example abused children, who despite being removed from the environment where they were deprived of social contact, were not able to learn the language. There have been many criticisms to Chomsky’s UG, for example, the LAD cannot be located and is immeasurable. Also, Chomsky’s theories overlook the effects of social contact and the environment on language learning. Social interactionist Vygotsky (1978) was a strong proponent of the social interaction hypothesis. He believed that learning takes place through social interaction, and give and take of information with caregivers, parents, or peers. According to Vygotsky, children begin with external speech, which could consist of one word only, but have the meaning of a whole sentence. Gradually, as the child grows older, he develops more complex and longer sentences and associates more meaning with his words. A child also engages in private speech (similar to adults), which is usually meant for problem solving or thinking out loud, but is not meant for sharing although articulated. Vygotsky believes that as the child develops more linguistic skills, this private speech becomes internalized and turns into inner speech, which is pure meaning, and does not consist of subjects; it is predicated. In direct opposition to the environment being the active participant in language learning, Chomsky flips behaviorism on its head and presents the learner as having a primary role while environment becomes secondary. Within the Universal Grammar Theory (UG), Noam Chomsky (1959) presents a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that is responsible for the language learning process. Purely biological, language is filtered through the innate LAD that is structured with principles that are unchanging and parameters that vary according to the language being learned. Proofs to support this theory are many. Syntax and the head-first/head-last parameter are two such proofs. As a child learns language, they hold to one of only two possibilities in any given language – head-first and head-last – and language is formed through recursion and syntactic movement that follow a pattern within a particular language. This shows that language is rule-governed and that the LAD is programmed with language foundations from which a child can develop. That children are resistant to correction follows this same thought as they develop language through the LAD. Language \is not linked to intelligence as we see in brain damaged adults who are completely coherent in language skills and others who are cognitively normal but cannot speak correctly. Stroke victims also show that, depending on the area of the brain that is affected, intelligence and speech are not linked. Broca’s and Wernicke’s Aphasias show that certain areas of the brain affe ct speech while intelligence remains unaffected. As evidenced by the Gopnik family, genetic impairments have also proven that a glitch in the UG can be passed down from one generation to another, thus proving that the LAD is indeed biological (Jackendoff, 113). Eric Lenneberg’s Critical Period Hypothesis (1967) and the cases of â€Å"wild children† are yet further evidence. Lenneberg holds that the LAD becomes dormant or ineffective after a certain age – around the age of 12 – and this is why children acquire language so much more quickly than adults who are attempting the same. Through these studies of particular children who did not learn language and who were void of contact with language as a whole, it shows that the younger the child, the more fully they were able to learn language. Once a child was passed the age of 12 or so, they were unable to acquire proper language skills. The younger children were not only able to learn more adequately but then went on to continue in the language learning process as a normal adult would. As many proofs as there are for Chomsky’s UG and the LAD, criticisms are plentiful as well. First and foremost, where is the evidence that a device like LAD exists? It certainly has not been located in the brain, therefore, it remains immeasurable and some have serious doubt as to its legitimacy. This theory also limits the role of the environment and gives no account for the social context of the language learning process. It idealizes the speaker and the grammar itself to a certain degree and packages the entire process a bit too neatly. Cognitive Development Theory Jean Piaget’s (1955) work in cognitive development is foundational on many levels. Watching his own children, nature, and certain study groups of young children, Piaget introduces a theory that is completely developmental. As a child is ready and developed (both biologically and cognitively), they are able to assimilate, accommodate and adapt new experiences. Underlying in this theory is reasoning and logic. The role of the environment is minimal and the learner is vital but only as they are cognitively developed and ready for new experiences. A child will not learn what they are not cognitively developed to receive at that point no matter what the instruction. Piaget holds to the notion of children developing schema. As a new experience is received and they are biologically and cognitively ready to receive it, they will develop new schema to fit into the framework of schema that they already have developed. This theory also relies heavily on egocentric and socialized speech with each one serving a different function. Egocentric speech is what is used (mainly by children) when words and thoughts are spoken out loud but the one speaking is only dealing with their own thoughts and ideas. Socialized speech is a shift away from egocentric speech where one simply derives pleasure from speaking to being a way of exchanging their ideas or opinions. Although Piaget’s work and theory is critical, it neither accounts for the child’s behavior as a whole nor for the cognitive development after the stage of ‘formal operation’ is reached. It offers vast insight into the developmental process of a child but little instruction on attaining language skills. It was also based solely on a Western model and is therefore quite limiting. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Input Output Hypotheses As a result of older models of language teaching where attention was given to language grammar, Krashen (1981) places his focus on communication input. He contends that if the learner is given a chance to absorb the language, they will be better equipped to acquire it. Rather than forcing output immediately, Krashen holds to a silent period where learners have the privilege of just listening to language before attempting it†¦much like a young child would in learning their mother tongue. Comprehensible input (i + 1) is the formula that Krashen holds to for optimal language learning for second language learners (SLLs). This states that if a SLL is offered input that is only slightly beyond what they already know, acquisition will take place. He also makes a differentiation between language learning and language acquisition, claiming that acquisition is what is needed for the language learning process. Criticisms of Krashen’s hypothesis are that input alone cannot account for acquisition and that some grammatical forms cannot be learned without being taught. Swain (1985) introduces her Output Hypothesis in contrast to Krashen and claims that no matter the input, if the output is unintelligible, acquisition has not truly occurred. It is the output that forces learners to grapple with the grammatical processing and figure out what works. Through output, a learner can realize their problem areas, can experiment with new areas they are unsure of, and gives them the chance to analyze problems they are having in their language learning process. Linguistics and Language free essay sample Language Comprehension †¢Language Production †¢Language Acquisition Psycholinguistics is a branch of cognitive science What will be covered in this class? †¢ How do we produce and recognize speech? †¢ How do we perceive words, letters, and sentences? †¢ How do we learn and recall information from texts? †¢ How can we improve texts to make them easier to understand? †¢ How does the brain function to process language? †¢ What are the causes and effects of reading disabilities? Is there language in other species? Central themes in psycholinguistics 1)  What knowledge of language is needed for us to use language? Tacit (implicit) knowledge vs. Explicit knowledge †¢ tacit: knowledge of how to perform something, but not aware of full rules †¢ explicit: knowledge of the processes of mechanisms in performing that thing 2)  What cognitive processes are involved in the ordinary use of language? How do we understand a lecture, read a book, hold a conversation? Cognitive processes: perception, memory, thinking, learning Some definitions of basic components of language: Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences Syntax: The grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence or phrase Phonology: The sound pattern of language Pragmatics: How language is used in a social context Examples from psycholinguistics Parsing garden path sentences The novice accepted the deal before he had a chance to check his finances, which put him in a state of conflict when he realized he had a straight flush. We will write a custom essay sample on Linguistics and Language or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 1) The defendant examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable 2) The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable The process of parsing is the process of making decisions The effect of prior knowledge on comprehension The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important, but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then one never can tell. After the procedure is completed, one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more, and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life. Bransford amp; Johnson, 1973 Recall: No context: 2. 8 idea units out of a maximum of 18 Context afterwards: 2. 7 idea units Context before: 5. 8 idea units Child language development How many words do you know? Hint: Dictionary has about: 450,000 entries Test high school graduates: How many words do they know? About 45,000 english words About 60,000 including names and foreign words The average six year old knows about 13,000 words. Learning about 10 words per day since age 1. (One every 90 minutes) How much do we have to teach children to learn language? Do you have to teach a child to walk? Is it the same way of learning a language? My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them I eated my dinner A brief history of psycholinguistics Wilhem Wundt (early 1900s) Interest in mental processes of language production Sentence as the primary unit of language †¢ Speech production is the transformation of complete thought processes into sequentially organized speech segments. Behaviorism (1920s-1950s) †¢ Rejected the focus on mental processes †¢ Measurement based on objective behavior (primarily in lab animals) †¢ How does experience (reward and punishment) shape behavior? B. F. Skinner: Children learn language through shaping (correction of speech errors) Associative chain theory: A sentence consists of a chain of associations between individual words in the sentence What’s wrong with the behaviorist approach? Noam Chomsky (1950s present) 1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously 2) Furiously sleep ideas green colorless. 3)  George picked up the baby 4)  George picked the baby up. Almost every sentence uttered is a new combination of words The Poverty of stimulus argument: There is not enough information in the language samples given to children to account for the richnes and complexity of children’s language The pattern of development is not based on parental speech but on  innate  language knowledge Linguistic Diversity vs. Linguistic Universals Linguistic diversity There appears to be a lot of diversity among languages Even within languages there is diversity When are two languages different? We speak the same language if we can understand each other Exceptions: Norwegian and Swedish Cantonese and Mandarin Dialects within languages: The myth of pure language How/why do languages change? Why does there seem to be a correct English? Members of the dominant (most powerful) sub-culture tend to speak one dialect and may punish those who do not Linguistic Chauvinism Belief that one’s own language/dialect is the best of all possible languages Black English Vernacular (BEV) Study by William Labov Interviewed African-American street youth You know, like some people say if you’re good an’ sh*t, your spirit goin’ t’heaven . . . ‘n if you bad, your spirit goin’ to hell. Well, bullsh*t! Your spirit goin’ to hell anyway, good or bad. [Why? ] Why? I’ll tell you why. ‘Cause, you see, doesn’ nobody really know that it’s a God, y’know, ‘cause I mean I have seen black gods, white gods, all color gods, and don’t nobody know it’s really a God. An’ when they be sayin’ if you good, you goin’ t’heaven, tha’s bullsh*t, ‘cause you ain’t goin’ to no heaven, ‘cause it ain’t no heaven for you to go to. †¢ Place holders: There vs. It in the copula Copula: Is, Was optional †¢ Negatives: You ain’t goin’ to no heaven BEV just as linguistically complex as Standard American English We don’t see/understand the complexity in other languages Moral: All languages seem to permit as wide range of expressions as others Linguistic Universals What is in common with all languages? Sentences are built from words based on the same physiological processes †¢ All languages have words †¢ All humans have ways of making sounds. †¢ Languages tend to use a small set of phonemic sounds †¢ Phoneme: The minimal unit of sound that contributes to meaning How many phonemes in a language? English: 40 phonemes †¢ Range: Polynesian 11 to Khoisan 141 Discreteness Messages in human language (e. g. speech sounds) are made up of units of which there is a discrete (limited) number Arbitrariness The relationship between meaningful elements in language and their denotation is independent of any physical resemblance between the two. Words do not have to look or sound like what they describe Openness †¢ New linguistic messages are created freely and easily †¢ Languages are not constrained in a way so that there are a limited number of messages that can be created.